Piano

What is a piano?

The piano, also known as the fortepiano or string piano, takes its name from the Latin words “clavis” (key) and “taste” (key). This name refers to the crucial role of the keys on this instrument. When a key is pressed, a complicated mechanism sets small hammers in motion, which strike the strings and thus produce the piano’s unmistakable sound.

The development of the piano made it possible for the first time to change the volume continuously. This led to the emergence of the term “pianoforte” (abbreviated to “piano”). This term emphasized the ability to play between soft (piano) and loud (forte) and contributed to the popularity of this unique instrument. Today’s piano is a keyboard instrument in operation, a percussion instrument in the way it is excited and a stringed instrument in the type of vibrating medium.

History of the piano

Historically, stringed keyboard instruments can be traced back to the monochord. Several monochords developed into raft or tubular zithers played with both hands. This gave rise in antiquity to keyboard organs on the one hand and various plucked, struck or bowed stringed instruments on the other, including the psaltery.

The organistrum from the 12th century – a hurdy-gurdy whose string length could be changed using tangent keys – is regarded as an intermediate link in the development of stringed keyboard instruments. In 1397, a jurist in Padua first mentions a psaltery that was operated with keys. In 1404, a clavicordium and a clavicymbolum are mentioned for the first time in the Minneregeln of Eberhard von Cersne. In 1425 such an instrument appeared on an altarpiece in Minden, and in 1440 Arnaut Henri de Zwolle described this new type of instrument in a treatise, including a dulce melos related to the hammered dulcimer.

From the monochord and the psaltery, the clavichord developed in the late Middle Ages by adding a keyboard (tangents firmly connected to the key strike the strings) and in the Renaissance the virginal and the harpsichord as well as their variants clavicytherium and spinet, in which the sound is produced by striking the strings with a keel. The grand piano form of the harpsichord ultimately became the model for the first pianos.

History of Bartolomeo Cristofori and the first fortepiano

The world of the piano has a fascinating history dating back to the 17th and 18th century Italian instrument maker Bartolomeo Cristofori created the first fortepiano, in which hammers struck strings at the touch of a key, enabling dynamic playing. His innovations and improvements led to the creation of the term “pianoforte”, in which the volume could be varied continuously between soft and loud. While the piano initially attracted little attention in Italy, it quickly became popular in other parts of Europe.

In Germany, Gottfried Silbermann had a decisive influence on the modern piano. He improved Cristofori’s action and earned recognition from composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach. Johann Andreas Stein created the Viennese action, which was adapted by numerous piano makers in Vienna and Germany. In England, on the other hand, the square piano developed as a cheaper alternative to the fortepiano and became a great sales success. The English action of Robert Stodart and John Broadwood brought further improvements and helped the piano to become increasingly popular.

The developments and innovations in the piano world contributed to the piano becoming one of the most popular and widely used musical instruments for musicians and the European bourgeoisie. With its unique ability to express a wide range of emotions and create virtuoso soundscapes, the piano is still an indispensable instrument in the music scene today.

The development in the first half of the 19th century

In the first decades of the 19th century, the piano underwent a remarkable development. Two grand piano actions dominated: the Viennese action by Johann Andreas Stein and the English action by Americus Backers, Robert Stodart and John Broadwood. While the Viennese action stood for delicate instruments with a soft sound, the musicians and composers of the emerging Romantic period demanded more power and expressive possibilities. The English action became increasingly popular, as it allowed for larger hammers and a greater volume of sound.

Between 1750 and 1850, the range of the keyboard increased from around five to seven and a half octaves, which required additional bracing and a cast-iron frame. The piano strings were made of stronger cast steel, and cross-stringing made it possible to use longer strings in shorter instruments. Johann Heinrich Pope’s innovation of wrapping the hammerhead with felt instead of leather fundamentally changed the sound of the piano, allowing for richer and more colorful tones.

An important invention of this period was Sébastien Érard’s repetition mechanism, which enabled fast and virtuoso playing. The damping was controlled by pedals and the piano became an integral part of concert life in the big cities. With the growing popularity of the piano, it also found its way into middle-class households.

The first half of the 19th century was characterized by groundbreaking developments in piano construction, which made the instrument a powerful and expressive companion for musicians and composers. The piano sound became more varied and refined, and the piano established itself as one of the most important and popular musical instruments of its time.

The development in the second half of the 19th century

By the middle of the 19th century, most of the elements of the modern piano, both the grand piano and the upright piano, had been developed. This was followed by a number of innovations, above all the cross-stringing of the grand piano, but above all constant refinements and improvements to the mechanics, construction and manufacturing processes. The second half of the 19th century was characterized by an unprecedented intensification of production. Whereas around 33,000 pianos were produced in Europe in 1850, by 1910 this figure had risen to 215,000.

This sharp rise was probably due to the increasing popularity of the piano among the middle classes, for whom owning a piano became a status symbol, but also to the general population growth in the 19th century. The once popular table piano was displaced by the pianino and to a certain extent became a victim of its own success. It developed from a simple, small instrument into a large, heavy colossus with an exclusive design. The gap was filled by the new, smaller and cheaper pianino, which became by far the most popular domestic instrument of the middle classes internationally. By the end of the 19th century, most instrument makers had stopped producing upright pianos.

At the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, one of the first major international world exhibitions, piano makers from all over Europe and the New World met for the first time. The exhibition was a great success and was to be held regularly from then on. Such events facilitated technological comparisons, spurred competition and contributed significantly to innovation. Heinrich Steinweg and his son Henry Steinway played a central role in the further development of the piano.

In 1859 they patented the complete combination of cast iron frame and cross-stringing for grand pianos and in 1866 the installation of cast iron frames and cross-stringing for upright pianos. In 1878 Steinway patented the bending of the grand piano case made of laminated maple layers. These innovations created the shape and basic construction of the modern piano, which has hardly changed in over 140 years. The innovations were soon adopted by other manufacturers.

With the development of the Steinway & Sons Centennial D in December 1875, the concert grand piano can be regarded as largely mature. It has the cross-stringing from 1859, the one-piece cast iron plate, the action frame from 1871, the sostenuto pedal and the pilot screws from 1875, and initially the bass tension screws on the soundboard, which were removed in 1878. The smaller changes that followed served less to improve the sound than to simplify and cheapen production and improve handling – while retaining the sound quality achieved. Its successor, the D grand piano introduced in 1884 and still in production today, is almost 200 kilograms lighter.

During its production period, the Centennial D underwent several experimental developments. From 1880, the final form was found with the installation of the “rim”, the outer casing glued from thick planks, in the Model D. During these years of technical progress, it was hardly noticeable at first that the grand pianos had a poorer sound.

They were equipped with hammers made from bent felt strips based on Dolge patents and strings made from Bessemer steel, which was invented in 1856. These developments were due to the requirements for sound reinforcement in very large concert halls with 2500 to 7000 listeners. A performance that grand pianos could not have achieved 30 years earlier. This type of grand piano won an award at the 1876 World Exhibition and is still considered technically up-to-date today. It has hardly been significantly improved since then.

However, the French grand pianos of the 1830s and 1840s by Hertz, Boisselot, Erard and above all Pleyel were more sonorous, more fiery, but quieter and not suitable for an audience of more than 1000 people, and their richness of sound came at the price of unimaginably high maintenance costs by today’s standards for the quickly wearing, elaborately handcrafted hammers.

While the wars and political upheavals of the 18th and early 19th century, many piano makers fled from Germany and France to England and America. In the second half of the 19th century, Germany became the world’s leading piano-making country, ahead of England, France and the USA. German piano makers delivered all over the world.

Development in the 20th and 21st century

At the beginning of the 20th century, the piano also experienced a boom in the USA, which soon outstripped European production. In 1910, 370,000 pianos were produced in the USA, compared to 215,000 in Europe. In the heyday of piano manufacturing, 300,000 pianos were sold per year in Germany alone; at this time, the piano was a “status symbol, means of communication and favorite leisure activity at the same time” and enabled daughters of “good families” to present themselves to men in a favorable light at recitals.

At the end of the 19th century, the pianola (brand name of the American manufacturer Aeolian) was invented in the USA and pedal-operated self-playing pianos also became very fashionable in Europe, especially through Hupfeld, so that at the beginning of the At the beginning of the 20th century, more upright and grand pianos were delivered than pure hand-playing pianos and piano production reached its peak. The two world wars and the world economic crisis, but also a change in contemporary tastes, brought the heyday in Germany to an abrupt end.

Home music gave way to record and the radio, and learning to play the piano was no longer an automatic part of education. Many manufacturers had to close their factories, lost them due to war damage or had to switch to the production of war material. In addition, piano manufacturing came under criticism and experienced material difficulties, as the previously mass use of ivory for piano keyboards almost led to the extinction of elephant populations in Africa. After the Second World War, the industry was slow to recover and it was not until the 1960s that a gradual upturn began. German reunification also had a positive effect on piano manufacturing, as traditional companies in East Germany (e.g. Blüthner) were unable to fully develop until 1990.

The decline in European piano production was compensated for by American and emerging Asian piano production. The last few decades in particular have been characterized by the upswing in piano manufacturing in Japan, South Korea and China. Today, the Japanese Yamaha Corporation produces grand pianos of the highest quality, which can be found more and more frequently in concert halls (e.g. in the Berlin Philharmonie). The Korean Young Chang and the Chinese Pearl River Group are among the largest piano manufacturers in the world today.

Origin of the piano

Upright pianos were also built from the very beginning, for example by the Cristofori pupil Domenico del Mela and the Silbermann pupil Christian Ernst Friederici (1745). These instruments often had impressive shapes, evidenced by names such as giraffe pianos, harp pianos, lyre pianos, pyramid pianos or cabinet pianos; they were usually very high, very exclusive and did not have much in common with today’s upright pianos.

The first small pianos were created independently of each other around 1800 by Matthias Müller in Vienna and John Isaac Hawkins in Philadelphia. Robert Wornum, who built a cottage piano around 1811, was technically and commercially successful. By 1826, this had developed into the piccolo piano and became the model for all later pianos.

His mechanism is a plunger mechanism with release, based on the principles of the English grand piano mechanism and modified by the hammer pivot joint, the so-called hammer shell. He developed it further in the 1830s. This action was further developed in Paris by Pleyel and Pape and made commercially successful, which is why it became known as the French action. It essentially corresponds to today’s piano action.

Around 1850 in Europe and around 1900 in the USA, upright pianos began to replace table pianos, which required more material and space and had a less favorable sound. The piano makers tried to assert their craftsmanship not only through technical aspects, but also through the particularly artistic design of the cases, which they made especially for the numerous trade fairs and exhibitions.

The mostly very wealthy clientele often ordered upright and grand pianos based on designs by important architects and artists, resulting in many extremely magnificent instruments. In Germany, for example, the piano manufacturer Ibach had its own factory in Cologne with up to 2,000 employees, which produced these ornate cases. The C. Bechstein company in Berlin also produced a large number of such art-case instruments.

Construction of a piano

The case forms the body of the piano and consists of a stable beam construction, struts and wooden braces. The soundboard, also made of wood, is glued onto this body and is of crucial importance for the sound development.

The soundpost, also made of wood, is an important component to which the cast iron plate is attached. This plate is bolted to metal pegs onto which the string ends are wound. The strings are made of cast steel wire and vary in thickness depending on the pitch. For the lowest notes, thicker strings are wound with copper wire, while three plain strings are used for the other notes.

The action of the piano is a complicated mechanism consisting of keys, springs, reeds, tappets, dampers and hammers. When the keys are struck, the hammers hit the strings, producing the characteristic sound. The keyboard usually has 88 keys, giving the pianist a wide variety of sounds.

A piano is also equipped with two or three pedals, which offer further expressive possibilities. These components were perfected around 1880 and have hardly changed since then. Only the mechanization and automation of the production of small parts has made progress.

Building a piano is a harmonious combination of traditional craftsmanship and modern technology that makes this fascinating instrument an indispensable part of the musical world.

Sound diversity and expressive possibilities

The piano fascinates with its impressive dynamic range, which enables the pianist to express a wide range of emotions from delicate, soft tones to powerful, loud sounds. The specific characteristics of the piano sound include the fixed pitches, the sound coloration associated with the speed of touch and thus the volume, and the irrevocable decay of the sound, which can only be prolonged after touch by the right pedal and can be ended gradually or abruptly by gradual or abrupt damping.

A characteristic feature of the piano sound is the polyphony of notes, in which two or three equally tuned strings form a string choir. This “polychorality” was originally intended to increase the volume of the instrument, but above all it led to a more complex sound pattern of pre- and post-sounds. The strings of a string choir are struck together and vibrate in the same phase, but with slightly different amplitudes, as the shape of the hammer is never completely uniform. The string that is struck weakest gradually resonates with the other strings after its own excitation has died away, so that the strings of the string choir act like coupled pendulums that exchange a large part of their energy with each other.

The combination of attack and sustain gives the piano its unique and multi-layered sound. Using the left pedal weakens the attack sound on the one hand, as only two of the three strings of the string chorus are struck, and strengthens the resonance on the other, as the string chorus releases its energy comparatively slowly as a system of coupled pendulums. The left pedal therefore not only produces an initially softer sound, but also a relatively longer lasting sound. The piano’s pedals – sustain, una corda and sostenuto pedals – open up additional expressive possibilities for the musician and lend depth and nuance to the music.

The variation possibilities with the pedals and the touch speed open up a rich sound palette for the pianist, enabling him to shape the musical interpretation individually and sensitively. The tonal diversity of the piano makes it one of the most versatile and expressive musical instruments and an indispensable part of the musical world.

What influences the piano?

The sound and volume of a note on the piano depend exclusively on the speed and therefore the kinetic energy of the hammer striking the strings, and not on the way in which the pianist accelerates the hammer to this speed, i.e. not on a particular touch technique. Apart from the pedals and a few phenomena that also play a role, such as the “overtone” and the “undertone” that arise when the finger and the key or the key wood and the bottom of the key meet, depending on the playing technique, the timbre and volume of the piano always run parallel.

However, the timing of the string attack after the beginning of the attack of a piano key depends on the temporal force progression and thus on the acceleration of the hammer during the attack, so that a practiced pianist can make a certain note sound a little earlier or later within certain limits despite the same volume (“micro-agogic”) and set accents independently of the volume. In this respect, the pianist’s touch technique has a decisive influence on the piano performance due to the actual timing of the onset of the piano tone.

How does a piano sound if it is not well air-conditioned?

The room climate has a considerable influence on the sound and overall quality of the piano. Humidity in particular plays a decisive role. A relative humidity of between 40 and 70 % is recommended, ideally between 50 and 60 %. Humidity below 40 % can dry out the wood, while humidity above 70 % encourages the formation of rust on metal parts such as the strings. For this reason, the piano should not be placed on poorly insulated exterior walls, near radiators or on a heated floor, nor should it be exposed to draughts or direct sunlight.

Serious problems can occur, especially with pianos that have traveled long distances under different climatic conditions. For example, an instrument that was designed for the humid climate of East Asia and ends up in Central or Northern Europe may not survive the first cold and dry winter well. To prevent this problem, large and renowned piano manufacturers such as Yamaha produce their instruments for export in specially air-conditioned rooms.

If the humidity drops sharply over a longer period of time, the wood dries out and contracts. This can cause tuning pegs and screws to loosen, the beams of the keyboard and action to warp and the soundboard to lose its curvature, which has a negative effect on the tuning and sound. Conversely, high humidity leads to a greater curvature of the soundboard, higher tuning, jamming of axes and keys and a duller sound, as the hammer felt absorbs moisture.

Some piano manufacturers now use materials such as Plexiglas or carbon fiber composites (CFRP), which are less sensitive to climate fluctuations. These are used for the piano body or soundboard in some series models in order to counteract the negative effects of the room climate and ensure the long-term sound quality of the piano.

Piano playing technique

Playing techniques on the piano require close attention to physics, as even small movements have a major influence on the sound. The sitting position plays an important role here, as an incorrect posture can impair the ease of playing.

The basic rules for sitting posture are simple but very important: upright posture, shoulders and elbows relaxed at a 90-degree angle, which also determines the correct distance to the keyboard. The wrist should be relaxed, while the fingers should be round and close to the keys. Once this basic posture has been learned, it should be checked regularly, as discomfort or difficulties when playing are often due to incorrect posture.

Particular attention should be paid to the wrist, as it has a major influence on the sound and the smoothness of the movements. An immobile wrist can lead to a wooden sound and unnecessary strain on the fingers. It is therefore important to pay attention to a dynamic and flexible movement of the wrist while playing in order to produce an expressive and controlled sound.

List of famous pianists

• Alfred Brendel
• Art Tatum
• Arthur Rubinstein
• Arturo Benedetti Michelangeli
• Claude Debussy
• Elton John
• Erik Satie
• Franz Liszt
• Franz Schubert
• Frédéric Chopin
• Glenn Gould
• Hélène Grimaud
• Johann Sebastian Bach
• Keith Jarret
• Khatia Buniatishvili
• Long Long
• Ludwig Van Beethoven
• Martha Argerich
• Oscar Peterson
• Peter Bence
• Radu Lupu
• Robert Schumann
• Sergei Vasilyevich Rachmaninov
• Sonya Belousova
• Vladimir Horowitz
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
• Yann Tiersen
• Yiruma
• Yuja Wang

List of piano manufacturers

Alverpene

The Alverpen pianos are identical in construction to the May Berlin instruments and were manufactured by Schimmel Pianos, Braunschweig, until 1990. They are equipped with Renner machine heads.

Bösendorfer

Bösendorfer grand pianos have been regarded as one of the best premium manufacturers since they were founded in Austria. They have become world-famous for their famously customizable and overtone-rich sound.

Boston by Steinway

Boston pianos are designed by Steinway. Steinway & Sons has the instruments manufactured by the experienced upright and grand piano manufacturer KAWAI Pianos.

C. Bechstein

The Carl Bechstein piano factory was founded in Berlin in 1853. To this day, upright and grand pianos in various price ranges and categories are manufactured under the Bechstein name.

Carl Mand

The Carl Mand piano factory was founded in Koblenz in 1835 and existed until shortly before the Second World War. During this time, the brand received many awards and prizes.

Ed. Seiler

The ED. SEILER piano factory in Kitzingen, Bavaria, was founded in 1849. It was founded in Liegnitz (Silesia). In 2008, the Korean company Samick took over the factory.

Feurich

The former premium piano brand from Leipzig was later manufactured in Gunzenhausen near Nuremberg. Since the change in 2012, instruments bearing the Feurich name are now manufactured in Ningbo, China.

Fazioli

Fazioli is a premium manufacturer of grand and concert grand pianos from the artisan town of Sacile in Italy, near Venice.

Gewa Keys

Founded in 1925 by Georg Walther in Vogtland, GEWA KEYS initially manufactured and sold handmade instruments. Today, the company has grown into the international Gewa music group.

Bros. Sagittarius

The pianoforte factory Gebr. Schütze was founded in Berlin in 1919 by the brothers Wilhelm and Georg Schütze. In 1958, the company and factory were taken over by F. Manthey.

Hupfeld

Hupfeld was a German premium piano manufacturer from 1892 to 2009. In 1892, Ludwig Hupfeld laid the foundations for one of the largest production facilities for mechanical instruments in the world.

Ibach

Until 2007, the Ibach factory was the oldest piano manufacturer in the world. From 1794 until 2007, the family-run company was one of the leading manufacturers of upright and grand pianos.

J. C. Neupert

Johann Christoph Neupert founded his piano factory and restoration workshop for historical keyboard instruments in 1868 and is still the leading manufacturer of harpsichords today.

Kawai

The name Kawai has stood for innovation since 1927. With new materials and technologies, Kawai has set standards in piano construction in terms of sound volume and playing feel and has continuously improved them.

Kemble Pianos

Michael Kemble founded Kemble Pianos near London in 1911. He later moved the piano factory to Milton Keynes. From 1968, Kemble Pianos and Yamaha Pianos worked closely together.

Krauss

The Krauss piano factory was founded in Stuttgart in 1870. They included grand pianos in their range from 1921. SAUTER Pianofortefabrik took over the Krauss company in 1958.

May Berlin

The Mey Berlin pianos were built by Schimmel Pianos, Braunschweig, between 1971 and 1990. In Munich, they were also sold under the brand names Carl Hirsch München and Alverpen.

Petrof

The Bohemian piano manufacturer Anton Petrof founded the company in 1864. By the turn of the century 1800/1900, he had quickly risen to become one of the leading and most important manufacturers in Europe.

Ritmüller

RITMÜLLER pianos come from the largest piano factory (Pearl River) in the world. Very large quantities are produced here to truly impressive manufacturing standards.

Samick Pianos

In 1960, Samick was the first to start building pianos in Korea. From 2004 to 2009, Samick acquired a stake in the Bechstein piano factory in Berlin. Today, Samick is one of the largest manufacturers of pianos.

Sauter

Carl Sauter inherited the piano-making workshop from his adoptive father Johann Grimm in 1946 and continued it in Spaichingen, Germany. The company continues to manufacture upright and grand pianos to this day.

Mold

Schimmel upright and grand pianos stand for attributes such as engineering skill, innovation, design and reliability – Made in Germany. Quality products that people all over the world trust.

Shigeru Kawai

Kawai has stood for excellent quality in grand and upright pianos since 1927. In 2001, the Shigeru Kawai grand piano series was introduced, which today enjoys great popularity and recognition all over the world.

Steinway & Sons

The Steinway grand pianos originated in New York from Henry Steinway and his sons. They registered over 125 patents and became the most successful brand. The Hamburg factory was founded in 1880.

Wagner

The Wagner piano factory was founded in the Elbe town of Lenzen, Germany, in the district of Prignitz.

Yamaha

Yamaha began producing pianos in 1900 and has a long tradition of manufacturing high-quality acoustic and digital pianos ever since. Perfect sound, timeless elegance, incomparable performance.

How much does a piano cost?

The price of a piano depends on various factors such as the brand, quality, size, material, construction and features of the instrument. In general, there are pianos for every budget, from inexpensive beginner models to high-quality concert grand pianos that can cost several hundred thousand euros. An acoustic piano (upright piano) for beginners can cost between 2,000 and 5,000 euros. These models are often ideal for beginners and amateur players who do not need a professional instrument.

Higher quality and better finished pianos can cost between 5,000 and 20,000 euros. These instruments are suitable for advanced pianists as well as for smaller concerts or professional use in studios. Grand pianos are generally more expensive than upright pianos. Smaller grand pianos can cost between 10,000 and 30,000 euros, while concert grand pianos from renowned brands can easily cost several hundred thousand euros.